Author: haroonkhan

Government based on a combination of democratic values (open, free and fair periodically held elections based on universal suffrage) and liberal-constitutional values (liberty and rights of individuals, checks and limitations on government). Main principles are representative government, open and free elections, adult suffrage, majority principles as decision-making criteria, checks and balances between different branches of…

Some thinkers and observers such as Prof. Harold Laski advocated industrial democracy, which involves worker’s participation in industry. It is application of the concept of democracy in industry.

A classical form of democracy identified with representative form, which implies indirect policy and legislation making. In this participation of the people is indirect through their representatives elected periodically based elections. Liberal democracy as it prevails in Anglo-American countries and many developing countries such as India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Turkey is known as indirect…

As a form of government practiced in many developing countries which combines democratic means of election of representatives, reaffirmation of leadership and public offices but negates the liberal tenets of civil rights and individual liberty. They are democratically elected or nominated elite or leaders but do not allow limited and constitutionally accountable government. Fareed Zakaria in…

Classical form of democracy that involves direct participation and/or means of direct intervention by citizens in legislation and accountability of government such as recall, initiative and referendum. It prevailed in Athens and presently prevails partially in Switzerland and some states of USA. This form of democracy has its supporters in Pericles in Athens and Rousseau…

Indirect form of democratic selection and nomination of leadership and public officials is mainly identified with Lenin’s concept of democratic centralism. It involves election and nomination of party and public officials from below in a pyramidal structure of party formation, i.e., democratic election and nomination of officials and leadership. However, decisions, orders and policies flow…

This is characterised by the democratic tradition, which considers ‘rule of the people’ as the basis of democratic participation. ‘Rule of the people’ may obtain through direct or indirect participation. This includes direct democracy of Athenian type and indirect democracy of liberal variety as they obtain in Anglo-American and many developing countries.

Marx, Engels and Lenin and subsequently, Gramsci, Miliband, Poulantzas and Althusser apply this terminology to designate the operation of democracy in the context of liberal and capitalist economy. Democracy as a form of government is treated as class government dominated by the capitalist or the bourgeoisie. It is an arm of exploitation of the workers…

Before we discuss the various theories of democracy, let us see how has the term democracy been characterised by different adjectives. A variety of names, adjectives and ornamentations are associated with term democracy. This is due to classification and grouping of democracy differently either due to different theoretical perspective or self-styled leadership and elite donning…

cIn classic sense, democracy means the rule of the people, either directly or through elected representatives. Cleon, the Athenian politician and general who was killed during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) defined democracy as ‘that shall be democratic which shall be of the people, by the people, for the people.’4 This was the definition, which Lincoln used in…