Gender Inequality as a Special Form of Social Inequality

One of the social inequalities is found in the form of gender-based inequalities. Initially, demand for gender equality was expressed for equal voting rights. Presently, opportunities in the field of education, employment, public offices, etc. and the economic process have led to a greater role of women in all aspects of society. It is argued that biological differences should not be made the basis of social and material differences and discriminations. Feminist movements have demanded equality in all aspects of life. Initially, demand for women’s voting rights was raised in the mid-ninteenth century. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, in America had organized women’s rights convention in July 1848 and demanded the right to vote along with other rights such as property rights, and admission to higher education and church offices. Demand for equal political rights may be treated as the first phase of women’s equality and rights movements or Women’s Liberation Movements (WLM). In fact, the convention rephrased the American Declaration of Independence to read, ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal.’⁴⁵ By the first half of twentieth century, political equality in terms of universal suffrage in most of the Western world and in many newly independent countries such as India had been achieved. In fact, the first phase of women’s movement focused on demand for political equality and rights.

After the Second World War, the second phase of women’s movement can be said to have begun. Women’s equality and rights movement tend to understand ‘female subordination in terms of the unequal distribution of rights and opportunities in society.’⁴⁶ As we have mentioned earlier, Mill’s liberal feminism as expressed in his essay, The Subjection of Women found its expression in liberal feminism. Liberal feminism treats gender inequality as a problem of redistribution of rights and opportunities. Betty Friedan, a liberal feminist in her book The Feminine Mystique examined the problem of frustration, despair and hopelessness afflicting suburban American women. This book is considered to have stimulated the second phase of feminism.⁴⁷ She ‘contented that deeply entrenched attitudes and social barriers imprison women in a “house trap”.’⁴⁸ She argued against the myth of the ‘happy housewife’ and in a powerful speech in 1969, she proclaimed ‘abortion as women’s civil right.

However, while women’s equality and rights movement within liberal feminists’ framework is reformist, seeking reform in the public domain, the other variety of feminism is socialist feminism. According to Heywood, socialist feminism relates female subordination with the capitalist mode of production. It holds that any female’s economic significance is confined to household and tending to male workers needs so that productive workforce for capitalist economy is made ready. Most influential writer on socialist feminism has been Juliet Mitchell, a New Zealand born British writer ‘who adopted modern Marxist perspective that allows interplay of economic, social, political and cultural forces in society.’ Her Women Estate is important work on feminism. Another writer within the socialist feminist fold is Shulamith Firestone, a Canadian author and political activist. She has used the Marxian perspective to argue that sexual differences stem not from conditioning but from a ‘natural division of labour’ and emancipation of women is possible if they transcend their biological nature. This means ‘use of modern technology such as test tube babies and artificial wombs.’⁴⁹

A third type of feminism is found in the form of radical feminism. Radical feminism goes beyond the two other perspectives and treats gender difference as the most significant division in society. It seeks restructuring in all aspects, personal, domestic, family and treats patriarchy as the most crucial culprit and proclaims sexual revolution. However, an extreme form of radical feminism also argues for countering male as enemy which at times gets expression in justification for lesbianism. Simone de Beauvoir, French writer of the famous book, The Second Sex and Kate Millett, US writer, who wrote Sexual Politics are supporters of radical feminism. They highlighted how masculine and patriarchy are treated as normal and taken for granted, while the opposite as women are treated as the ‘other’ and negative. Heywood, however, has argued that division of the feminist movement into liberal, socialist and radical, has become redundant due to emergence of more diverse trends after the 1970s such as black feminism, eco-feminism, post-modern feminism, etc.⁵⁰

Social equality is generally understood in terms of reduction of inequalities arising out of caste, class, gender, race, or such social differentiations. It has been argued that economic and urban development and state intervention have led to mitigation of extreme of inequalities and has resulted in social mobility. Many theorists have argued that many forms of social inequalities such as caste, class, gender and even racial, are subsiding due to industrial economy, increasing employment opportunity in service sector and urban lifestyle. However, it may be pointed out that culturally and attitudinally institutionalized behaviour and discriminations could not be easily rooted out from society.